Human Anatomy & Physiology II Lab Exam I Review or study guide

Lab 1  Microscopes

1.       Identify and describe the functions of the parts of the microscope.

2.       Demonstrate proper use of the microscope.

3.       Recognize improper storage of microscope.

4.       Calculate total magnification of a specimen.

5.       Draw the orientation of the image on a microscope.

6.       Describe proper use of the oil immersion objective.

Lab 17  Endocrine System

1.        List hormones synthesized and secreted from each endocrine organ described in Tables 17.1 and 17.2.

2.       For each hormone in #1 describe the target organ and effect.

3.       Identify these endocrine organs in the cat specimen:

a.       Thyroid

b.      Thymus

c.       Adrenal gland

d.      Pancreas

e.      Ovary

f.        Testis

4.       Identify the major endocrine organs on a human model and human diagram.

5.       Answer lab manual questions regarding the video experiments described in Exercies 17.3

6.       Compare the nervous system and endocrine system mechanisms of communication. 

Lab 18  Blood

1.        Identify regions of whole blood that has been centrifuged.  Specify the structures and materials found in each region.

2.       Identify formed elements on a microscope slide.

3.       Categorize white blood cells as granulocytes or angranulocytes.

4.       Rank the relative numbers of cell types in healthy individuals, and in those with lymphocytic leukemia, infectious mononucleosis and eosinophilia.

5.       Explain the significance and method of performing a Differential White Blood Cell Count.

Lab 19  Blood Groups

1.       Define agglutinogen and agglutin.

2.       List the agglutinogens and agglutinins present in Type O, A, B and AB blood.

3.       Describe the significance of the Rh factor in erythroblastosis fetalis.

4.       Explain the mechanism and drug used to prevent erythroblastosis fetalis.

5.       Demonstrate the preparation of a slide agglutination test to determine blood type.

6.       Report the results of a diagram of a slide agglutination test .

7.       Organize a list of blood types by ability to donate or receive other blood types.

8.       Explain the mechanism that causes some blood types to be incompatible during blood transfusions.

Lab 19  Heart

1.        Identify the following regions of the heart in heart models, diagrams and in the sheep heart

a.       Diaphragmatic surface

b.      Apex

c.       Base

2.       Identify these great vessels in a heart model or diagram:

a.       Superior vena cava

b.      Inferior vena cava

c.       Pulmonary trunk

d.      Aorta (ascending, arch)

e.      Pulmonary arteries

f.        Pulmonary veins

g.       Brachiocephalic trunk

h.      Left common carotid

i.        Left subclavian

3.       Identify these surface structures in a heart model or diagram, or on a sheep heart:

a.       Atrioventricular groove

b.      Anterior and posterior interventricular grooves

c.       Auricle

d.      Ligamentum arteriosum

4.       Identify these vessels that supply and drain from the heart:

a.       Right and left coronary arteries

b.      Anterior and posterior interventricular arteries

c.       Circumflex artery

d.      Marginal artery

e.      Coronary sinus

f.        Great cardiac vein

g.       middle cardiac vein

h.      small cardiac vein

5.       Explain the significance of a blocked coronary artery.

6.       Identify these internal structures on a heart model or diagram, or a sheep heart:

a.       Pectinate muscles

b.      Fossa ovalis (heart model or diagram)

c.       Right and Left Atrioventricular valves

d.       Aortic and Pulmonary Semilunar valves

e.      Chordae tendinae

f.        Papillary muscles

g.       Interventricular septum

h.      Trabeculae carnae

7.       Know the names of the atrioventricular valves:

a.       Mitral valve

b.      Bicuspid

c.       Tricuspid

8.       Identify and describe the function of structures associated with the fetal heart and bypass of pulmonary circulation.

9.       Diagram the Pulmonary and System Circulations

10.   Describe the relative oxygen and carbon dioxide content of arteries and veins in the pulmonary and system circulations.  Assign appropriate colors to each.

11.   Identify right and left sides of a heart model and sheep heart, from the outside and inside.

12.   Describe the difference in the walls of the right and left ventricles, and the reasons for these differences.

13.   Identify the four chambers of the heart in heart models, diagrams and sheep hearts.  Specify right and left.

14.   Trace the path of blood from the vena cavae through the heart and pulmonary circulation to the ascending aorta.

15.   Explain how the heart functions as a 'double pump'.

Lab 21  Blood Vessels

1.       Describe the layers of the walls in arteries, veins and capillaries.

2.       Identify an artery and vein under the microscope.  Identify the histological layers of these vessels.

3.       Describe the structural and functional differences between elastic arteries, muscular arteries and arterioles.

4.       Describe the function of venous valves and precapillary sphincters.

5.       Identify the bold faced arteries from Exercise 21.2 in models and diagrams.  Models include:

a.       'Skeletor' skeleton with viscera

b.      Torso model

c.       Flat model pictured in Photo 385a

d.      Heart models

e.      Arm and leg models

6.       List the body regions supplied by the arteries from #5.

7.       Identify the bold faced veins from Exercise 21.3 in models and diagrams.  Models are the same as in #5.

8.       List the body regions drained by veins from #5.

9.       Identify arteries and veins in bold face from the cat dissection Exercise 21.4 in a cat specimen.

10.   Diagram and explain the function of the Hepatic Portal System.  List the blood vessels included in the system.

11.   Explain the function of the Liver.

12.   Diagram fetal circulation through these structures:

a.       Umbilical artery and vein

b.      Umbilical cord

c.       Foramen ovale

d.      Ductus arteriosus

Lab 22  Blood Pressure

1.       Define Systolic  and Diastolic Blood Pressure.

2.       Explain the cardiac events that cause SBP and DBP.

3.       Identify the instruments used in measuring blood pressure via the auscultatory method.

4.       Describe the significance of sounds in the auscultatory method of measuring blood pressure.

5.       Explain the effect of body position on blood pressure and explain the reason for the differences.

6.       Define Hypotension and explain the risks it causes to health.

7.       Define Hypertension and explain the risks it causes to health.

Human Anatomy & Physiology II exam #2

Human Anatomy and physiology II quizes

periodontal disease

periodontal-disease power point file

Some Small Issues with Human Anatomy - Real Life Research Paper

During the last few days, I have been researching and writing the last real life paper for my Human Anatomy and Physiology class.  The research topic is related to the reflex arc problem.  This research paper is different from my previous one.  For this research paper, I was asked to provide the explanation of the root cause of reflex failure in both lower limbs for paralysis/paresis (flaccid), absent reflex, and severe atrophy symptoms. I was also asked to describe an injury that might cause these symptoms.  I was completely wrong when I thought that these questions were simple and that I only needed two days to finish my research paper.  My professor had said, “You only need few hours to complete this real life paper because all the information is given in the Human Anatomy and Physiology text book.”  I read the chapter on   nervous systems, especially the reflex arc section, in the Human Anatomy text book many times but I could not find all the answers to the questions for my research paper. I decided to search the internet for any disease that has similar signs or symptoms. Sadly, after three days searching in the school library and on the internet, I was still unable to find any good documents that could help me to explain the root cause of reflex failure in both lower limbs. I found a few reflex disease documents on the internet however any detail of the root cause for each disease was not provided in these report documents. I believe the main purpose of these reports were to provide study cases for medical doctors.  The medical technical terms which were used in these documents were over my head. I am still a student of human anatomy, and I am struggling with all the technical terms. I am also having some issues with putting the reflex arc theory or concept to use in solving the cause for real life symptoms. My paper is due next Friday, so until that day I will continue to attempt to find an answer that can give a reasonable explanation to what causes reflexes to fail in both lower limbs.

Real Life Application 2

Questions:

A patient has entered your clinic with the following symptoms:

1. Decreased to absent reflexes in both lower limbs

2. paralysis/paresis (flaccid) in both lower limbs

3. Rapid, severe atrophy of the muscles in the lower limbs

What is causing these symptoms and what is the physiological reason for each of these symptoms?

Describe an injury that may cause these symptoms.

Define the terms hyporeflexia, areflexia, flaccid paralysis, and neurogenic atrophy.

Would any autonomic function be disrupted in this scenario? Why or why not?

Answers:

A.     What is causing these symptoms and what is the physiological reason for each of these symptoms?

1.       Decreased to absent reflexes in both lower limbs are symptoms of a peripheral nerve injury, thrombophlebitis, spinal shock or any injury which occurs below T1. A reflex muscle contraction occurs by the activation of a nerve in a specific area from the legs to the spinal cord. Damage to the nerve along this area will interfere with muscle contraction. 

2.  Paralysis/paresis (flaccid) in both lower limbs can be caused by any damage or interruption of lower motor neurons, because this damage affects nerve fibers traveling from the anterior horn of the spinal cord to the relevant muscle(s). It can also be caused by cauda equine syndrome and any injury at or below the anterior horn cell.

3.  Rapid, severe atrophy of the muscles in the lower limbs are caused by malformations or malfunctions of the central nervous system and lower motor neurons.  It occurs when there is an injury to, or disease of a nerve such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

B.     Describe an injury that may cause these symptoms.

1.       Decreased to absent reflexes in both lower limbs are caused by an injury to the central nervous system. It can be brought on by damage to the nerves that run through the spinal cord and branch out to the extremities. This damage often takes the form of a pinched nerve caused by something pressing against the nerve and disturbing its normal functioning.

2.       Paralysis/paresis (flaccid) in both lower limbs results from an injury to motor cells in the brainstem or spinal cord, or of the axons derived from them; this injury affects nerve fibers traveling from the anterior horn of the spinal cord to the relevant muscle(s). It also can be caused by an injury to nerves within the spinal cord as they exit the lumbar and sacral regions, which usually result from a fracture below L2. Cauda equina syndrome causes flaccid paralysis because the injury occurs at the lumbosacral nerve roots in the spinal canal. These nerves lead to the lower limbs.

3.       The most common causes of severe muscle atrophy in the lower limb are lower motor neuron injuries which cause traumas to peripheral nerves. When a body part is affected by paralysis, the muscles may atrophy through lack of use. Muscle atrophy also results if nerve cells (neurons) waste away or die, and are no longer able to send messages to muscles. This eventually leads to an inability to move the legs, and body, muscle weakening and muscle atrophy due to lack of use. .

C.     Define the terms hyporeflexia, areflexia, flaccid paralysis, and neurogenic atrophy.

a.       The definition of Hyporeflexia is an absent or diminished response to tapping. It usually indicates a disease that involves one or more the components of the two-neuron reflex arc itself.

b.      The definition of Areflexia is absence of reflexes.  It is decreased tendon reflex that is indicative of a breach in any part of the reflex motor arc. It may involve:
           o   the muscle - myopathy
           o   the nerve endings - polyneuritis
           o   the motor nerve - neuropathy
           o   the anterior spinal cord root, e.g. spondylosis
           o   the anterior horn cell, e.g. motor neurone disease, poliomyelitis
          o   the sensory arc sensory root or sensory nerve disease
          o   systemic disease, e.g. abetalipoproteinaemia

c. The definition of flaccid paralysis is weakness or loss of muscle tone resulting from injury or disease of the nerves innervating the muscles. The muscles are limp and cannot contract.
d.  The definition of neurogenic atrophy is muscle wasting due to damage to its peripheral nerve supply.

D. Would any autonomic function be disrupted in this scenario? Why or why not?
Autonomic functions would be disrupted by flaccid paralysis and hyporeflexia. During an injury, the spinal column and the spinal cord can be injured anywhere along their length. In a spinal cord injury, spinal shock occurs, which results in a complete loss of all motor, sensory, reflex, and autonomic function below the level of the injury. This loss is evidenced by peripheral vascular tone, which results in flaccid paralysis. Spinal shocks can recover by complication of autonomic hyperreflexia if the spinal cord injury occurred above T6. 

Osteoporosis Disease

When I think of osteoporosis, I tend to think of an older woman with a loss of height and a hunched-over posture. These are signs of aging and seemingly unavoidable. I realized that my concept of osteoporosis was not entirely true after I learned more about the disease through my Human Anatomy class. Therefore, in this paper I will be discussing what its etiology, symptoms, diagnosis, and current treatments are.  I will also list a few steps to prevent this disease and to take care of your bones.

First, I would like to help you understand how the bones develop and to define the back ground of Osteoporosis. Bones grow as our body grows, new bone is added and old bone is removed from the skeleton. During our childhood and the teen years, new bone is added faster than old bone is removed. Your bone mass increases until age 30 when our bones reach what is called "peak bone mass," or maximum density and strength  After that, bone removal begins to outperform formation of new bone, and this, over time, leads to bone loss. The rate of bone loss is greatest in the first few years after menopause. Then bone loss continues but more slowly. Next, your ovaries stop producing estrogen, a hormone that helps prevent bone loss.  Some people develop osteopenia, a condition characterized by low bone density. Osteopenia can eventually lead to osteoporosis, a more severe condition with even lower bone density.

Osteoporosis is a disease that weakens bones over time and it puts one at risk for breaking a bone. According to “About Osteoporosis”, an article on the Boniva website, osteoporosis is a term that means "porous bones." It is a skeletal disease affecting women and men. Osteoporosis is a condition in which bones have lost minerals—especially calcium—making them weaker, more brittle, and susceptible to breaking. Any bone in the body can be affected by osteoporosis, but the most common places where fractures occur are the back (spine), hips, and wrists.  Because the disease makes bones thinner and weaker, fractures can occur during ordinary movements like bending and lifting, or from falls. These fractures can be painful, disfiguring, and often go unnoticed at first. Fractures may also reduce a person's ability to lead an active life. It is estimated that 1 out of every 2 women over the age of 50 will be affected by postmenopausal osteoporosis in her remaining lifetime. Below is the picture of weak bone to help you understand this disease better.

Osteoporosis is most likely caused by a combination of factors. The primary factors are: imbalance of magnesium and calcium; longtime use of steroids; extreme hormonal imbalance; as well as the side effects of some drugs such as the anti-coagulant Warfarin, also known as Coumadin, which works by inhibiting vitamin K production.  According to “A Complete Osteoporosis Reversal Program”, an article on the health report website, Coumadin is often prescribed for reducing high blood pressure, to keep blood flowing where there is calcification of the arteries. One role of vitamin K is to take calcium in the blood and to direct it to the bone. When vitamin K is turned off, the calcium is more likely to stay in the arteries, causing potentially, calcification, and a decrease in bone density. A 2006 retrospective study of 14,564 Medicare recipients showed that warfarin use for more than one year was linked with a 60% increased risk of osteoporosis-related fracture in men; there was no association in women. So for some reason this problem may be more common in men.

Too much acidity can also cause bone loss.  If your diet contains too many soft drinks and foods like grains, pasta, white bread, meat, with too few fruits and vegetables, then your blood starts to become acidic. Since the blood needs to maintain a neutral pH, your body pulls calcium from the bones to neutralize the acidity.

Do you how calcium gets into the bones?  Bones are living tissues that must be constantly rebuilt through a two part process. First, cells called Osteoclasts have the job of getting rid of old weakened bone. They resorb old bone to make room for the creation of healthy strong bone.  Second, Osteoblasts, or immature bone cells, produce a matrix composed of collagen that then becomes mineralized. Bone mass is maintained by a balance between the activity of osteoblasts that form bone and osteoclasts that break it down. In osteoporosis the net rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation, resulting in a decrease in bone mass without an increase in bone mineralization. Osteoclasts are activated by parathyroid hormone (PTH) which signals osteoclasts to resorb bones. Calcitonin is the hormone primarily made by the thyroid that inhibits the activity of osteoclasts so that they don’t digest the bone. One reason why the osteoporosis protocol we suggest in this report is so powerful is that it includes many elements that stimulate the increased production of and activity of osteoblasts.

Do you know why hormone imbalance is one of the root causes of bone loss? According to “A Complete Osteoporosis Reversal Program”, an article on the health report website, in women, osteoclast activity is increased because of decreased estrogen after menopause. Men with decreased testosterone also have increased osteoclast activity. Because testosterone levels decrease with age, the older a man gets the more likely he is to develop osteoporosis. Increased osteoclast activity without increased osteoblast activity results in a net loss of bone. However, decrease in estrogen levels and testosterone does not appear to be the primary cause of the development of osteoporosis. This determination is based on the observation that  Asian and African populations with a low intake (about 300 mg) of calcium daily but with higher daily magnesium intake tend to have very little osteoporosis. These people all go through menopause or decreased testosterone levels as they age and yet they do not get osteoporosis. Therefore, the low magnesium and high calcium intake of our Western diet appears to be primary to the development of osteoporosis. Below are two explanations for why this situation can lead to osteoporosis. 

First, the Calcitonin hormone that inhibits osteoclasts relies on magnesium to function properly. If the magnesium is lacking, the balance between PTH which instructs the body to produce osteoclasts and calcitonin tilts is too low. This results in excessive stimulation of osteoclasts, which causes net bone loss. In other words, magnesium suppresses the hormone that tells your body to pull calcium from the bones so that you do not loose so much bone.

Second, Western countries have a high proportion of dairy products in their diets so the average calcium intake is about 1000 mg. There is 6 to 8 times more calcium than magnesium in dairy foods, resulting in a low magnesium intake. If this imbalance occurs, calcium moves out of the bones to increase tissue levels. Conversely, a high magnesium intake causes calcium to move from the tissues into the bones. Thus high magnesium levels lead to bone mineralization.

Common among many adults today, lack of physical activity is believed to contribute to lower bone density because the skeleton is not being taxed enough to stimulate new bone growth.

There are no obvious symptoms for bone loss occurs. Even though your bones may not feel weaker, you may experience some vague symptoms without realizing that they're associated with osteoporosis. These symptoms include: a loss of height, change in posture, or severe back pain, all of which may be caused by osteoporosis.

Many people do not discover that they have osteoporosis until a bone fracture occurs. Early diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis may help lessen the risk of broken bone. 



According to “Osteoporosis Tests and diagnosis”, an article on the Mayo Clinic website, Doctors commonly diagnoses osteoporosis by measuring bone density. The three tests that can accurately measure bone density include: Ultrasound, Quantitative computerized tomography (CT) scanning, and Single-photon absorptiometry.

Many websites provide information and advertise their products for treating and preventing osteoporosis problems.  So which is the best product? This question can’t be answered without an “it depends”. Below are a few medicines or products that are advertised for treating and prevent this disease.

1. BONIVA is a prescription medicine used to treat or prevent osteoporosis in women after menopause. BONIVA helps increase bone mass and helps reduce the chance of having a spinal fracture (break). It is not known how long BONIVA works for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis. You should see your doctor regularly to determine if BONIVA is still right for you.

2. Biphosphonate, Fosamax, and Actonel drugs. These work by stopping the production of osteoclasts which are supposed to resorb old, infirm bone. So when you take these medications, your bones may stay denser, but they will be composed of a higher amount of old, poor quality bone cells which makes them over time brittle and weak. You must have balanced bone resorption and creation. These drugs create weak bones.

3. Prednisone and other steroids. Prescription drugs that block the absorption of calcium into bones. These drugs are commonly used to treat autoimmune, asthma, and inflammatory diseases.

Personally, I would recommend some of the following steps to prevent osteoporosis problems.

1. Make weight-bearing exercise a part of your daily routine, such as walking, stair climbing, aerobic exercise and resistance training to develop the muscles that support the skeleton.

2. Stop drinking soft drinks. The phosphorus in soft drinks appears to have a deleterious effect on bone tissue. Coke and beverages with caffeine and phosphorus appear to cause bone resorption (a problem for children and adults).

3. Quit smoking. This can reduce the risk for osteoporosis and most other diseases.

4. Reduce consumption of dairy products and increase magnesium intake.  Magnesium is necessary for calcium absorption; it suppresses PTH and stimulates calcitonin so magnesium works to keep calcium in our bones. Magnesium deficiency will prevent this chemical action from taking place, and no amount of calcium can correct it. This results in an imbalance of magnesium and calcium in your body that for most people is the single most important cause of bone loss.

5. Get more sun. Increase Vitamin D intake.

6. Eat greens. Increase Vitamin K intake.

7. Reduce stress. Cortisol is a hormone produced when your body is under stress. Excess cortisol causes calcium to be pulled from the bones. In this day and age, it isn’t easy to reduce stress, so excess cortisol may also be initiating the pull of calcium your bones.

Now, you should have a clear understanding of what osteoporosis disease is, and what the root cause this disease.  In addition, you should have a good idea of how to diagnose, treat and prevent this disease.  It is up to you to take charge of your health.  You can use this information to build a foundation of knowledge that supports healthy bones and a healthy lifestyle.

References

1. Osteoporosis Tests and diagnosis http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/osteoporosis/DS00128/DSECTION=tests-and-diagnosis

2. A Complete Osteoporosis Reversal Program http://www.health-reports.com/Osteoporosis.html

3. About Osteoporosis http://www.boniva.com/osteoporosis/default.aspx?C=P000316_S0261_F000302