The brain

 Our behavior comes from our brain; therefore, in this paper, I will discuss what the brain is and what all components of the brain are.

The brain is one of the most important parts of the body; therefore, we need to take a good care of this.  This amazing organ acts as a control center by receiving, interpreting, and directing sensory information throughout the body. There are three major divisions of the brain. According to “Anatomy of the brain”, an article on the About.com Biology website, these divisions of the brain are:

The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function. There are two major divisions of forebrain: the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible for such functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions. The telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebral cortex. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex.

The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses as well as motor function.

The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The metencephalon contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assist in maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information. The myelencephalon is composed of the medulla oblongata, which is responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. Below is the picture of the brain to help you to understand this structure better.

There are two important nervous systems in the brain.  One is called the central nerve system (CNS) and the other is called the peripheral nerve system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It acts as the central control region of the human nervous system, processing information and issuing commands. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the command network the CNS uses to maintain the body's homeostasis. It automatically regulates heartbeat and controls muscle contractions in the walls of blood vessels, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. It also carries messages that help stimulate glands to secrete tears, mucus, and digestive enzymes. If the central nerve system in the brain is damaged, then we can get a stroke and paralysis. Normally, strokes occur when you have a blood clot.

The peripheral nervous system is a channel for the relay of sensory and motor impulses between the central nervous system on one hand and the body surface, skeletal muscles, and internal organs on the other hand. It is contains two subsystems of nerves. One is called the motor system and the other is called the autonomic system.  As in the central nervous system, peripheral nervous pathways are made up of neurons (that is, nerve cell bodies and their axons and dendrites) and synapses, the points at which one neuron communicates with the next. 

According to The Human Brain, an article on The University of Texas, “Your brain includes billions of neurons which are specialized cells, allowing your brain to learn, reason, and remember. Through the activity of neurons, the body responds and adjusts to changes in the environment. Every time you feel something - including the effects of a drug - millions of neurons are "firing" messages to and from one another. These messages consist of chemical and electrical impulses.”

When the brain is damaged, there is no medicine or treatment can help to rebuild our mental power.  We will have to go through surgery to rebuild it. For example, when you have a blood clot in the brain, blood will not return back to your heart.  As the result, you will not get enough oxygen to the brain. That is a stroke.

sources/words cite

http://www.onelife.com/evolve/brain.html

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/brain/Structure.shtml

http://www.utexas.edu/research/asrec/brain_p.html

Periodontal Disease

            Do you know why your gums are bleeding when you brush them? If your answer is No, then you are in luck. My goals for this research paper are to explain what the root causes of Periodontal Disease are. This includes the definition or background of the disease and what bacteria are involved. I will also discuss what the symptoms are, how it is diagnosed, what treatments are available and what techniques are useful for prevent ion of the disease. We will also look at who might most likely be affected by this disease?

            First, I would like to define the background of periodontal disease.  It is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gum and tissues that surround and support the teeth. If left untreated, periodontal disease can lead to tooth loss. This disease is divided into two types:

1.      Gingivitis: causes lesions (wounds) and affects the gums.  Gingivitis is due to the long-term effects of plaque deposits.  Plaque is a sticky material made of bacteria, mucus, and food debris that develops on the exposed parts of the teeth. It is a major cause of tooth decay. If you do not remove plaque, it turns into a hard deposit called tartar that becomes trapped at the base of the tooth. Plaque and tartar irritate and inflame the gums. Bacteria and the toxins they produce cause the gums to become infected, swollen, and tender.

2.      Periodontitis: damages the bone and connective tissue that support the teeth. In periodontitis, plaque builds and hardens under the gums. The gums pull away from the teeth, forming “pockets” of infection. The infection leads to loss of the bone that holds the tooth in its socket and might lead to tooth loss.  The following picture should help you to understand the root cause of this disease better.

            Periodontal disease is caused by “plaque” bacteria.  The three types of bacteria most likely to cause aggressive periodontal disease are: Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans (A. actinomycetemcomitans), Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), and Bacteroides forsythus. These bacteria are also known as gram negative anaerobic bacteria. Both A. actinomycetemcomitans and P. gingivalis are caused gum disease.  In our mouth, the sulcus is teeming with harmless varieties of bacteria. However, increasing the bacteria quantity and changing the balance of bacterial types from harmless to disease-causing bacteria will cause problems.  To be exact three-hundred fifty species of microorganisms are found in the typical health mouth, but only four percent of these species are linked to periodontal disease. The helpful bacteria are usually known as gram positive aerobic bacteria. These harmful bacteria increase in mass and thickness until they form a sticky film. Below is the picture of a tooth to help you to understand this disease better

           

According to “Periodontal Disease”, an article on the About Health website, plaque actually provides a barrier against outside bacterial invasion. It is only when it accumulates to excessive levels that bacterial plaque sticks to the surfaces of the teeth and adjacent gums and causes infection. It is also when transforms into calculus (commonly known as tartar), which is much more difficult to remove than plaque. The bacteria that cause periodontal disease thrive in acidic environments. Eating sugars and other foods that increase the acidity in the mouth increase bacterial counts. The bacterium that causes periodontal disease may be able to be passed to others through saliva.

The development of disease is also dependent on several other factors.  According to “Gingivitis and Periodontal Disease (Gum Disease)”, an article on the WebMD website, these factors are:

·        Hormonal changes, such as those occurring during pregnancy, puberty, menopause, and monthly menstruation, make gums more sensitive, which makes it easier for gingivitis to develop.

·        Illnesses may affect the condition of your gums. These include diseases such as cancer or HIV that interfere with the immune system. People with diabetes are more likely to have periodontal disease than people without diabetes, because many kinds of bacteria (germs) thrive on sugars, including glucose -- the sugar linked to diabetes. When diabetes is poorly controlled, high glucose levels in mouth fluids may help germs grow and set the stage for gum disease.

·        Medications can affect oral health because some lessen the flow of saliva, which has a protective effect on teeth and gums. Some drugs, such as the anticonvulsant medication Dilantin and the anti-angina drug Procardia and Adalat, can cause abnormal growth of gum tissue.

·        Bad habits such as smoking make it harder for gum tissue to repair itself.

·        Poor oral hygiene habits, such as not brushing and flossing on a daily basis, make it easier for gingivitis to develop.

·        Family history of dental disease can be a contributing factor for the development of gingivitis.

According to “Gingivitis and Periodontal Disease (Gum Disease)”, an article on the WebMD website, four symptoms of this disease are:

Ÿ  Red, tender and swollen gums.

Ÿ   Bleeding of the gums.  Even during brushing, bleeding gums are a sign of inflammation and the major marker of periodontal disease.

Ÿ  Debris and bacteria. They can cause a bad taste in the mouth and persistent bad breath.

Ÿ  Loose teeth. They can sometimes cause a change in the way the upper and lower teeth fit together when biting down or in how partial dentures fit.

The following picture should help you to understand symptoms of this disease better.

The main approach in the diagnosis of this disease is to check the color and shape of gingival tissue on the cheek (buccal) side and the tongue (lingual) side of every tooth.  Redness, puffiness, and bleeding upon probing indicate inflammation and possible periodontal disease.  Deposits of plaque and tartar may be seen at the base of the teeth. The gums are usually painless or only mildly tender.  At the dental office, dental bone measurements may be done to determine whether the inflammation has spread to the supporting structures of the teeth. Below is a picture of how a dentist performs the measurement used to diagnose of this disease.

 

Two approaches can be used to treat periodontal disease:

·        Nonsurgical Approaches. Deep cleaning of tartar and bacteria from gum line and tooth root surfaces. 

·        Surgical Approaches. Periodontal surgical techniques include flap surgery (periodontal pocket reduction), bone grafts, and guided tissue regeneration.

            The best method to prevent this disease is daily brushing and flossing.  Brushing gets rid of plaque from the easily reached surfaces of the teeth; flossing removes food particles and plaque from in between the teeth and under the gum line. Antibacterial mouth rinses can reduce bacteria in the mouth that cause plaque and gum disease.  These steps can be done at home. For proper plaque control one should have professional cleanings at least twice a year. According to “Gingivitis and Periodontal Disease (Gum Disease)”, an article on the WebMD website, four steps for prevention of this disease are:

·    Stop smoking. Tobacco use is a significant risk factor for development of periodontitis. Smokers are seven times more likely to get gum disease than nonsmokers, and smoking can lower the chances of success of some treatments.

·    Reduce stress.  Stress may make it difficult for your body's immune system to fight off infection.

·    Maintain a well-balanced diet. Proper nutrition helps your immune system fight infection. Eating foods with antioxidant properties, such as, those containing vitamin E or vitamin C can help your body repair damaged tissue (vitamin E-containing foods include vegetable oils, nuts, green leafy vegetables. Vitamin C-containing foods include citrus fruits, broccoli, and potatoes).

·    Avoid clenching and grinding your teeth. These actions may put excess force on the supporting tissues of the teeth and could increase the rate at which these tissues are destroyed.

This disease affects both men and women.  According to Periodontal (Gum) Disease Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments, an article on NIDCR website, “People usually don't show signs of gum disease until they are in their 30s or 40s. Men are more likely to have gum disease than women. Although teenagers rarely develop periodontitis, they can develop gingivitis, the milder form of gum disease. Most commonly, gum disease develops when plaque is allowed to build up along and under the gum line.”  Why men are more likely to have gum disease than women.  According to "5 months average time men go before changing their tooth brush", an article on Health line, "Among women and men in the survey, 86 percent of women brush their teeth twice or more a day, yet only 66 percent of men do so."

            Now, you should have a clear understanding of what periodontal disease is, and what bacteria cause this disease.  In additional, you should have a good idea of how to diagnose, treat and prevent this disease.  It is up to you to take charge of your health, and develop good habits to prevent this disease from damaging your teeth, because this disease might cause other illness such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, respiratory diseases and worsening chronic lung conditions.

Words Cites/Reference

1.      The new Merriam-Webster Dictionary

2.      Marjorie Kelly Cowan and Kathleen Park Talaro. Periodontal disease. In Microbiology A System Approach, 2^nd edition. Page 691-693.

3.      Periodontal disease. Available at:  http://adam.about.com/reports/Periodontal-disease.htm

4.      Gingivitis and Periodontal Disease (Gum Disease). Available at http://www.webmd.com/oral-health/guide/gingivitis-periodontal-disease

5.      Steven R. Pohlhaus, DDS,  Balttimore Center for Laser Dentistry. Copy of text available at :http://www.stevedds.com/periodon.htm

6.      Periodontal disease. Available at http://www.nidcr.nih.gov/OralHealth/Topics/GumDiseases/PeriodontalGumDisease.htm

7.  http://issuu.com/reporterherald/docs/healthline_sept16

Picture of tooth: https://health.google.com/health/ref/graphic/1121

Picture of periodontal disease: https://health.google.com/health/ref/graphic/1136

Picture of how dentist measurement of gum disease: https://health.google.com/health/ref/graphic/9348

Blood clots in the heart

My uncle was scheduled for Raiofrequency ablation treatment yesterday; however, this procedure was canceled and delayed for three weeks. Doctors found blood clots in my uncle's heart during the TransEsophageal Echo (TEE) procedure, therefore, they stopped the electrical cardioversion procedure. I was concerned about his blood clot condition and why doctors have to stop the procedure. After few hours of research on this topic, I understood that blood clots can disrupt blood flow. These clots may block the blood vessels leading to important organs in the body such as the brain and cause stroke.

According to Blood Clots, an article on MedicineNet website, “Blood clots form when there is damage to the lining of a blood vessel, either an artery or a vein. The damage may be obvious, such as a laceration, or may occur on the microscopic level. As well, blood will begin to clot if it stops moving and becomes stagnant. Blood clots in a vein occur when a person becomes immobilized and muscles are not contracting to push blood back to the heart. This stagnant blood begins to form small clots along the lining walls of the vein that gradually grow to partially or completely occlude the vein. An analogy to this process is a slow moving river. Over time, weeds and algae start to accumulate along the banks of the river where the water flows more slowly. Gradually, as the weeds start to grow, they begin to invade the center of the river because they can withstand the pressure of the water. Blood clots can also form in the heart. In atrial fibrillation, the atrium or upper chamber of the heart does not beat in an organized manner. Instead, it jiggles, and blood tends to become stagnant along the walls of the atrium. Over time, this may cause small blood clots to form. Clots can also form in the ventricle after a heart attack when part of the heart muscle is injured and unable to contract normally. Since the damaged area doesn't contract with the rest of the heart, blood can start to pool or stagnate, leading to clot formation.” I wanted to know what causes blood clots in the heart. The above article also provided the answer to my curious question.

Small clots may form along the walls the upper chambers of the heart. If these clots break off and travel in the bloodstream to the brain, they may block an artery and cause a stroke. This explained why doctors stopped the electrical cardioversion procedure on my uncle heart.

Below is a picture of blood clot.

Source:

http://www.medicinenet.com/blood_clots/page2.htm#

Cross bridge cycling

Here is my answer to one of the human anatomy study guide questions.  Six steps of cross bridge cyclying are:
1. exposure of binding sites on actin
2. binding of myosin to actin
3. power stroke of the cross bridge
4. disconnecting the cross bridge
5 . re-energizing the cross bridge
6. removal of calcium ion.

Source:

Human Anatomy and Physiology book.

muscle cramps

Few years ago, I was having cramps and numbness on both of my legs and feet.  I thought that it was muscle cramps.  My family doctor suggested that I try leg muscle exercises, stretching or gently massaging the muscle.  those treatments did not resolve the problem.  I took medicine such as tylenol and aleve to relieve the pain.  I was always wondering what the root causes  of  muscle cramps are.  What are the treaments for this illness? Would my illness be healed?

I learned from human anatomy class that, in order to move our muscles, our brain sends signals to the voluntary muscles and coordinates the movements that we want. The voluntary muscles contract as they're being used and they become tighter. The muscles then relax when the movement is complete. When the contraction cycles are done repeatedly, as in exercising, the fibers become stronger and the muscles get larger. However, sometimes the muscles contract on their own, causing a muscle cramp.

Sadly, after few hours of research, I coudn't find any good treament information for this illness.  According to the Muscle Cramp article on the Mayoclinic.com website, " A muscle cramp is a sudden and involuntary contraction of one or more of your muscles. If you've ever been awakened in the night or stopped in your tracks by a sudden charley horse, you know that muscle cramps can cause excruciating pain. Though generally harmless, muscle cramps can make it temporarily impossible to use the affected muscle. Long periods of exercise or physical labor, particularly in hot weather, may lead to muscle cramps. Some medications and certain medical conditions also may cause muscle cramps.  You can usually treat muscle cramps at home with self-care measures."


Source:
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/muscle-cramp/DS00311

Below is an example picture of muscle cramps

Bruised skin

This morning, the alternator droped on top my palm while I removed it from my dad car. I realized my palm is really hurt at the beginning, then it swelled and turned dark purple or deep red. I have learned from Human anatomy and Physiology class that, bruise is caused by some form of blunt force body injury to blood vessels under the skin. When blood vessels break open, blood begins to pour into the surrounding tissue. This blood pools under the skin and initially looks dark purple or deep red. So why the pain at the injury area stop after few hours. After hours of research I understood that the pain associated with bruises is caused by the damaged nerves in the area of the bruise and the pressure of the blood as it pools. I also learned that there are three types of bruises (subcutaneous, intramuscular, and periosteal). According to What is a Bruise article on the Wise Geek website, “A subcutaneous bruise is usually the most minor, least painful, and shortest lasting. In fact some subcutaneous bruises do not hurt much at all, and people can’t remember injuring themselves. The subcutaneous bruise affects the blood vessels directly beneath the skin. It can range in color from dark purple, to brown. As the bruise fades, it becomes yellowish or light brown and ultimately disappears.” Now, I am worrying of how to heal my bruise. What should I do to heal my bruise quickly?

Source:

 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-bruise.htm

Below are pictures of my bruise skin injury.

　
　

Treament options for Atrial Fibrillation

I found an article on treatment options for Artial Fibrillation while I waited to see an eye doctor at Eye Center of Northorn Colorado office.  According to doctor Arnold Pfahnl, the author of article, four options are avaliable to treat Atrial Fibrillation.  These options are:

1. Medication. Two types of medication, one use to control heart rate, the other maintain the normal rythm and keep artial fibrillation from happening.
2. Therapies, abnormal breathing at night or fixing a leaky heart valve.
3. Cardioversion. Only apply for someone who continously experiences artrial fibrillation.  This option is the use of an electric shock to restore the normal heart rhythm.
4. Raiofrequency ablation. This option is used more often because it contructs a burst of radiofrequency energy through a catheter to destroy the tissues the trigger the abnormal rhythm. The energy bursts are a few hundred strategically placed burns on the tissue. Two procedure can be done for this option, one the patient is under general anesthesia, it takes about three to four hours to complete, the other is done in conjuntion with open heart surgery to repair any heart problem.

Few interesting comments on the article that caughted my attention immediately, one is "about 2.2 million Americans live with atrial fibrillation", and others are " Gendermen are slightly more likely to develop atrial fibrillation than women." "Women who are diagnosed carry an increased long-term risk of premature death."  My questions are: why more men are sick with this disease than women?   Why women would be premature death if they are diagnosed with this disease?

Sources:
Treatment options for atrial fibrillation article: http://issuu.com/reporterherald/docs/healthline_sept16

http://www.med.umich.edu/cvc/services/site_electrophys/Treatment%20of%20Atrial%20Fibrillation.pdf